Research Methods Tutorials: Introductions to Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

On the previous poll there is no wrong answer. Focus groups along with many other research methods require time, money, organization, training for proper facilitation and analysis, and sample sizes may be small. At the end of the day, researchers must pick a methodology that will help them answer their research question, and they must also work within the limitations to produce the best research they can.

(This is an explanation of the poll on the previous page)

We have chosen to present information on two common research methods: Phenomenololgy and Grounded Theory. Here again are the brief summaries of each of these methods from section 1 of this tutorial:

Phenomenology: This type of research attempts to understand the lived experiences of a group and/or how members of that group find meaning in their experiences. Researchers use interviews, observation, and other qualitative data collection techniques. 

Grounded Theory: Researchers will create and test a hypothesis using qualitative data. Often, researchers use grounded theory to understand decision-making, problem-solving, and other types of behavior.

What is Phenomenology?

According to The Social Science Jargon-Buster, it is "[t]he study of ‘phenomena’ as they present themselves in individuals' direct awareness. Perception, rather than socio-historic context or even the supposed ‘reality’ of an object, is the focus of investigation." 

"[P]henomenologists would argue that ‘objective’ knowing or truth should be ‘bracketed’ or put aside so that the focus can be on internal processes of consciousness. They would further argue that direct awareness [is] the only thing[] we really can know, since all knowing depends on individual perceptions. Phenomenologists believe that reality is always socially constructed ... rather than natural, and is therefore unavoidably ambiguous and plural."

Wikipedia articles on Phenomenology (psychology) and Phenomenology (sociology) explain how this method can differ by discipline:

In Psychology, Phenomenology "attempts to explain experiences from the point of view of the subject via the analysis of their written or spoken words" through qualitative description.

In Sociology, "Phenomenology analyses social reality in order to explain the formation and nature of social institutions. [...] Social phenomenologists talk about the social construction of reality. They view social order as a creation of everyday interaction, often looking at conversations to find the methods that people use to maintain social relations."
 

Example of a Study using Phenomenology

Fusar‐Poli, P., Estradé, A., Stanghellini, G., Esposito, C. M., Rosfort, R., Mancini, M., Norman, P., Cullen, J., Adesina, M., Jimenez, G. B., Da Cunha Lewin, C., Drah, E. A., Julien, M., Lamba, M., Mutura, E. M., Prawira, B., Sugianto, A., Teressa, J., … Maj, M. (2023). The lived experience of depression: A bottom‐up review co‐written by experts by experience and academics. World Psychiatry, 22(3), 352–365. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.21111

• Abbreviated Abstract: We provide here the first bottom-up review of the lived experience of depression, co-written by experts by experience and academics. [...] The subjective world of depression was characterized by an altered experience of emotions and body (feeling overwhelmed by negative emotions, ...); an altered experience of the self (...); and an altered experience of time (...). The experience of depression in the social and cultural context was characterized by altered interpersonal experiences (...), and varied across different cultures, ethnic or racial minorities, and genders. The subjective perception of recovery varied (...), as did the experience of receiving pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy, and social as well as physical health interventions. These findings can inform clinical practice, research and education. This journey in the lived experience of depression can also help us to understand the nature of our own emotions and feelings, what is to believe in something, what is to hope, and what is to be a living human being.

Methodology

This study had four phases, summarized below:

1. In the first step, the team of experts did a systematic review of the existing literature.
2. In the second step, they uploaded and analyzed all the relevant research articles they found into a qualitative research software called NVIVO to look for common themes. 
3. In the third step, the researchers shared their themes with other experts around the globe to gather diverse perspectives: "[W]e promoted a collaborative and iterative sharing and analysis of the preliminary experiential themes and sub-themes in virtual workshops involving a wider global network of experts...".
4. "In the fourth and final step, the selection of experiential themes and sub-themes was enriched by phenomenologically informed perspectives" through collaboratively writing and annotating the article.

Findings & Conclusions

While acknowledging limitations to their study ("it is neither assumed that the experiences reported are exhaustive nor that they are systematically applicable to all individuals with depression"), the researchers sought to appraise the lived experience of those with depression to inform clinical practice, research and education.

In conclusion, this study brings dialogue with experts by experience into psychiatric clinical practice and research. While biologically-oriented approaches tend to sideline and marginalize the personal perspective, we argue that depression cannot be understood if one neglects or trivializes that experience. In clinical practice, our phenomenologically-enriched study can complement biological approaches by allowing clinicians to empathize with persons with depression, because “the science of persons… begins from a relationship with the other as person and proceeds to an account of the other still as person”

What is the Grounded Theory Methodology?

Grounded theory is a general research methodology used to study diverse populations. Its methods were developed by two sociologists, Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss. "The method they developed was labelled ‘grounded theory’ to reflect the source of the developed theory which is ultimately grounded in the behaviour, words and actions of those under study." The method may also be "grounded" in existing knowledge or theories at the time -- (rather than being approached as if a blank slate) (Goulding 2002). 

According to The Social Science Jargon-Buster, grounded theory is both theory and a method: "Theory derived from data gathered and analysed in a systematic and rigorous way, as well as a method for generating such theory." Rather than starting with a theory and exploring data to provide evidence for or prove that theory, with the grounded theory approach, "[t]here's no predetermined theory, no predestined categories of exploration. Theory evolves through the process of data analysis, which demands rich and ongoing engagement with data. The data holds the answers and it is up to the researcher to analyse that data in ways that allow findings and theory to emerge."

The Wikipedia article explains how it can be applied in a study (highlighting and bold added for emphasis):

A study based on grounded theory is likely to begin with a question, or even just with the collection of qualitative data. As researchers review the data collected, ideas or concepts become apparent to the researchers. These ideas/concepts are said to "emerge" from the data. The researchers tag those ideas/concepts with codes that succinctly summarize the ideas/concepts. As more data are collected and re-reviewed, codes can be grouped into higher-level concepts and then into categories. These categories become the basis of a hypothesis or a new theory. Thus, grounded theory is quite different from the traditional scientific model of research, where the researcher chooses an existing theoretical framework, develops one or more hypotheses derived from that framework, and only then collects data for the purpose of assessing the validity of the hypotheses." 

Example of a Study using Grounded Theory

Salinas, D., & Garrido, C. G. (2022). Teacher educators’ adaptability process when faced with remote teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 120, 103890-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2022.103890

• Abstract: The present research explores how Teacher Educators (TEs) have adapted to remote teaching due to the world pandemic in light of their emotions, cognition, and praxis. Grounded theory was used to analyse the data from 72 TEs and the instruments to collect data were 2 semi-structure[d] interviews having a 10-month time span between the first and second interview. Results show that a cognitive-emotional interplay featured by uncertainty, anguish and challenge was the driving force for their praxis in their adaptation process which was influenced by TEs’ lack of technological competences.

Categories from this Study

In this study, Table 1 shows the frequency of codes from 3 categories or dimensions that emerged from First set of Interviews (stage I). 

This information is compared with codes and categories from a second round of interviews (stage II), and then ultimately compared in Figure 1: "If we compare the categories of the two stages in the three dimensions, from an axial perspective (Strauss & Corbin, 1998), the dimension that mostly changed was the dimension on praxis."

As we can see in this figure, between stage I and stage II of the interviews, teachers were relying less on videos/capsules and more into interactive classes. 

Figure 1:

The researchers were able to document and see this shift by categorizing the codes from their interviews and looking for common themes or concepts across the responses. They found that "Learning" and "Frustration" turned into "Innovation" and "Mixed Feelings" (less frustration).

Figure 2:

"[Teacher Educators’] emotions, filled with uncertainty and anguish amalgam[at]ed with a constant rethinking and challenging consciousness persisted during this adaptability process through time (10 months), adding a sense of mixed feelings and innovation at the end of the process, when TEs demonstrated a more positive perspective."

New or Improved Theory

The researchers' findings suggest they have found evidence of an existing theory:

Considering the first finding, the cognitive-emotion interplay construct in the process of adaptability, as shown in the results, might add or give another insight to Martin et al.'s adaptability theory (2012). There is an amalgamation of the emotional and cognitive dimensions which triggered TEs’ praxis due to the combination of negative feelings (anguish and uncertainty) and thoughts (challenge and rethinking) in their adaptability process.

• Both Phenomenology and Grounded Theory are examples of Qualitative Research Methods
• Each of these methods relies on text as a primary source of data that the researchers analyze to look for themes or categories
• The researchers chose theories that complement their research questions: Phenomenology to illustrate lived experiences and Grounded Theory to create new or improved theory based in understanding behavior, words or actions that can be coded and categorized.